The Silicon Valley in China

Tomomi Tsuchiya
Instructor: Willy Lam
Course EAS-290
July 5, 2008


The Silicon Valley in China


Introduction

In the increasingly competitive economic world, China needed to have a new center of technological development to ensure that they would be able to catch up to the world’s greatest economic powers. To achieve this, they started the development of several intellectual clusters of development zones.

In 1995, the Chinese government reached the goal that they would achieve a GDP four times as big as the one they had in 1980- five years earlier than expected. They set another goal that they would achieve a GDP per a person two times bigger and four times big as the one they had in 2000 until 2020. In 2005, China’s economy became the fourth most powerful, half as much as Japan’s. In 2007, a growth rate of GDP increased 11 percent than the previous year. This means that they achieved the high growth rate of around 10 percent.



出所：IMF『International Financial Statistics』


There are some cities or zones in China which is called as “Chinese Silicon Valley” or “Science city”. Those areas are developing in high-tech industries. The Chinese government plans to invest 5.359 billion yuan into scientific funding this year, 25% more than last year (People's Daily Online, 2008). “Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao has called on the country's top scientists to make more contributions to the social and economic development with more science and technology achievements” (Xinhua, People’s Daily Online, 2008). Thus, Chinese government thinks that technology industries are the key of development in China.

There are five requirements for development of high-tech industries. First, there should be talented people around the area. There should be group of universities or R & D centers which talented people can study enough. By the end of 2005, the number of China's science and technology talents reached 42.46 million, slightly higher than the United States (42 million), second only to the EU's 54 million (People's Daily Online, 2008).
Second, there should be cluster effects which is cluster of companies can share their ideas and can produce a lot of new ideas. There is a thought that “the more, the better”.
Third, the area should be the place that investors can make investments of venture capital in companies.
Fourth, there should be the free flow of information area which accept and hire many foreign engineers.
Fifth, there should be the area which the government doesn’t interfere in. There are some high-tech developing areas in china such as Dalian, Zhongguancun in Beijing, Zhangjiang, Shenzhen, and Shanghai. I would like to write about three of them: Beijing, Shanghai and Tianjin because I think those cities are the best cities in China which have the best conditions for developing high-tech industries. Beijing and Shanghai are the top areas which are developing in new-economy sectors rapidly. Tianjin is also a developing city in China. Venture capital is also mainly focused on these three important cities.

1.Beijing

In Beijing which is capital city in China have about 14,000,000 people. There are a lot of talented people. It has the largest amount of high level universities, technology institutes in China. There are about 50 higher education schools and 413 national or public technology institutes there. Almost half of the universities or institutes of China is assembling in Beijing. For example, there are Beijing University, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing Polytechnic University (BJPU), Qinghua University, and Beijing University of Chemical Technology and so forth (People’s Daily Online, 2008). Thus, Beijing has a strong technology base.

Concentration of mental power is the top of the country in Beijing. Amount of information is huge in this area and transmission speed of the information is very high there. Since there are a lot of universities and institutes, high-tech or new technology firms can cooperate with those universities or institutes. In 1999, the fruit of science technology in Beijing was really big. This situation promotes the development of Beijing area. There are some companies which were established by universities or institutes. For example, the Fangzheng Company was set up by Beijing University in 1986. Beijing University made 100 percent of an investment in this company. It made an affiliate in Tokyo, Japan in 1996. In addition, Qinghua Ziguang Company (ＵＮＩＳ) was founded by Qinghua University 1988. There are over 2000 firms which were established based on the seed-money of universities in China (Sunami, 2001). Also, there are over 20 institutes of multinational companies in Beijing. Overall, there are 4000 to 5000 high-tech firms including other private companies, around Zhongguancun in Beijing, and the total take is over 100,000,000,000 yuan (Chinese Society Statistics inf. 2000). Thus, those institutes contribute to improve the environment of the technology development.

The government is supporting the high-tech industry providing special fund. Also, people who contributed to the development of technology development or high-tech industry can be admitted some advantages by the government. For example, those people can get appellation of honor, bounty, and exemption from the income tax.

2.Shanghai

Shanghai is the second top city in China in the technology field. In Shanghai there are about 17,000,000 people. There are also a lot of talented people as well as Beijing. There are also a lot of universities and institutes in Shanghai. There is also a subsidiary of Fangzheng Company.

Shanghai has huge economic advantage and good industry base. Therefore, they can improve the environment for the development of industries. Shanghai is one of the cities in Changjiang delta economic area. The infrastructure of business is well-developed and physical distribution is flourishing. In 1978, Shanghai city set a goal for “Make Shanghai city developed level of technology base in the world”. Therefore, Shanghai pays attention to the development of high technology and new technology in the world all the time, and they pick out realms which would have great influence on economic development. They concentrate their investment on and study those realms. Shanghai city government invested 10,000,000 yuan and 30,000,000 yuan respectively in 1995 and 1998, then established some technology studying institutes and process technology institutes ( The Nation Economic Institute of China Economic Development Reform Institute Fund Committee (NEI), 2002). For example, there are Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Bioscience, and Shanghai Institute of New Material technology etc (NEI, 2002).

“Shanghai has attracted 27,900 investment projects from 91 countries and regions, involving US$94.2 billion of contracted investment. Actual investment was US$50.1 billion. More than half of the world's Top 500 companies have invested in Shanghai. Some have moved their regional headquarters to the city as well” (Shanghai Genomics, 2008). Thus, Shanghai is attracting more and more overseas investment, engineers, and companies from other countries.

3.Tianjin


Tianjin is a city under the direct control of the government, which is really close to Beijing. There are 9,000,000 people in Tianjin. In 1984, Tianjin economic development area was established by the Chinese government. 　These days,　the electron communication technology, technical electricity, biotechnology medicine, new material, and new energy technology industry are the main five high-tech industry in the development area in Tianjin (Wang, China Radio International (CRI), 2005).
The establishment of Tianjin Economic and Technological Development Area (TEDA) was given government approval on December 6, 1984. One of the country’s first state-class development areas, TEDA has developed into one of the country’s most influential hotbeds for high-tech and new industries. There are about 200 researchers of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering in TEDA (CRI, 2005). The Chinese Academy of Sciences was established in 1949 and the Chinese Academy of Engineering was established in 1994. Both of them are the top level Academies in terms of science and engineering in China. In 1996, spending 35,000,000 yuan, the TEDA International Establishment Center was set up and they supported 119 firms in Tianjin (CRI, 2005). “The Science and Technology Garden of Tianjin University (STGTU) was co-established by TEDA and Tianjin University on October 11, 1999. Taking up a total land area of 330,000 square meters and involving a total investment of RMB 500 million yuan (approx. USD60 million), it has become a muster point for high and new tech enterprises” (TEDA, 2006). There are also 33 foreign academicians in Tianjin. Those universities, institutes, and companies have multiple effects each other to develop the industry in this area.

Especially, Nankai development area which is developing the most in Tianjin is located in the centre of Tianjin city. Nankai area is very important place in terms of education in Tianjin. There are 16 universities such as Tianjin University or Nankai University, and more than 50 percent of university students are in the universities in Nankai area (CRI, 2006). In addition, there are 19 researchers of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering in Nankai area.

The government is taking some measures to promote the development of high-tech industry in TEDA. For example, they will provide 50,000 yuan per year as a grant to each talented person who got a job in the area. Furthermore, they will give at most 3,000,000 yuan bounty to people who contributed the development very much.

Conclusion

According to meeting of China high-tech industry development, the development of high-tech industry had a good start in 2006 which is the first year of the “11th Five-Year Plan Period”, and the high-tech industry would be developed more with the increments of more than 940,000,000,000 yuan which is 20 percent more than last year (People’s Daily Online, 2006).
Through my research, I think that those three cities: Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin, have the best conditions for developing high-tech industries in China. When I look at those three cities, geotropically, those cities are close to the seacoast. It is a good condition to trade with other countries and all of them fulfill the requirements for development of high-tech industries. There are talented people and many groups of universities or R & D centers which talented people can study enough. There are also many high-tech companies and they cooperate with the universities or the academies. Moreover, the area the place in which investors can make a lot of investments of venture capital in companies. Actually, there is a great support of the government to promote the development. They spend a large amount of money for the development of those areas. Also, many kinds of information and many foreign engineers or companies can get into the area and the Chinese government permitted it.

In preparation for the Beijing Olympics, China have been developing a transport information systems to deal with traffic jams in the Chinese capital, a public information system to smooth the flow of information during the Games and also an infrastructures such as highway or a water recycling system for venues. In this summer, many people will come to China from all over the world. Chinese society and economy will get stimulation from outside a lot.

Lastly, I think that there is a problem in China’s Silicon Valley. The Silicon Valley in the U.S. has very creative environment and development of innovation. On the other hand, in China, their development is depending on the cluster of imitation yet. There are economic advantages but less cultural disadvantages in China. If the Silicon Valley in China could develop innovation really, China would be more and more powerful country in the world.

Reference

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Proud of Your Dialect

Tomomi Tsuchiya
Yih Yeh Pan
Course 150-3
July 24, 2008

Proud of Your Dialect

Introduction

I speak in a strong dialect which is very different from the “Standard Japanese”. I define the “Standard Japanese” as a Japanese language which is mainly used in Tokyo and on mostly radio or television. Most Japanese people can understand it (Sato, 1999). There are a lot of dialects in Japan such as Tohoku dialect, Kansai dialect, Tokyo dialect which is really close to the “Standard Japanese”, Kyushu dialect, and Okinawa dialect. My dialect is Yonezawa dialect in Yamagata prefecture which is categorized in Tohoku dialect group. When I spoke in my dialect in different places such as in Tokyo, I realized that many people stared at me and started laughing. Also in AIU, some of my friends from southern part of Japan make fun of my dialect. From my experience, I feel that there is some prejudice against dialects in Japan. I know many students from many different cities in AIU. However, it is difficult to judge their home prefectures from their way of speaking because they tend to use the “Standard Japanese”, my friends from Tohoku district especially, try to hide their dialects.

However, I think that each dialect has its own style. Therefore, one dialect should not be superior or inferior to another one. I believe that each dialect should be respected and preserved. In the first section of this research paper, I would like to write about reasons why dialects are discriminated and dying in Japan. In this section, I will clarify the background and present condition of Japanese dialects. In section two, I will give reasons why dialects should be preserved and respected.

1.Reasons why dialects are discriminated and dying in Japan

Traditional dialects in Japan are disappearing nowadays (Takayama, 2006). There are several reasons why dialects are being discriminated against and dying in Japan. The first reason is the political and educational promotion of “Standard Japanese” education. In the middle of the Meiji era, the government started a severe crusade against dialects and there was a penalty if people used their dialects (Sato & Yoneda, 1999). After World War Ⅱ, corrections for dialects into proper “Standard Japanese” were done in school education. Through the education, the government planted the idea that dialects are “evil” and “shameful” languages in the mind of people (Sato & Yoneda, 1999). This idea has been accepted by most Japanese people ever since, and it caused discrimination and stereotyping against dialects before long.

The second reason is the influence of the “Standard Japanese” through mass media and mass communication such as television, radio, and also the Internet (Takayama, 2006). Recently, the “Standard Japanese” is popularized in Japan thanks to these reasons. This phenomenon carries the decline of traditional dialects. In local areas, speaking “Standard Japanese” is penetrating especially into younger generation (Sato & Yoneda, 1999). In a survey, when people were asked a question: “Do you like your dialect?” as the interviewee’s age became younger, the number of positive answers decreased on average in the whole country (Sato & Yoneda, 1999). Thus, young people prefer to use the “Standard Japanese” rather than their dialects.

The third reason is the influence of economic power of Tokyo. Since Tokyo is the capital city, most of the economic power is concentrated in Tokyo and its suburbs (Takayama, 2006). With the economic growth of Tokyo, the transportation system was developed, and many people flowed into Tokyo area (Hanzawa, 1999). Thus, Tokyo became the economic central city in Japan. Therefore, the “Standard Japanese” spread out all over the country rapidly.

The fourth reason is that of nuclear family style and individualism. Traditionally, the Japanese family was big. There were at least three generations in one house so every family member used to talk with each other in a dialect. However, because nuclear family style is more popular and people become more individualistic in Japanese society these days, people have less opportunities to talk with old people (Takayama, 2006). Since a dialect is not a written language, it is difficult to learn and succeed a dialect without talking with anybody who can speak the dialect. The more people live apart from their home towns, the less chances of speaking dialects will be provided.

The last reason is that of strong inferiority complex concerning dialects. Especially people in Tohoku district have much stronger inferiority complex towards their dialects in Japan (Sato & Yoneda, 1999). The Tohoku dialect is a synonym for “countryside”, “non-sophisticated”, and “inferior”. As I mentioned above, the Meiji government planted the idea that dialects are “evil” and “shameful” languages in the mind of people (Sato & Yoneda, 1999). Therefore, people are unwilling to speak their dialects.

However, “Language is a flexible, changing, living organism that belongs to the people who speak it” (Simon, 1980, p.551). Is it really okay if the dialects vanished and there would be only one, plain language? Next, I would like to show the reasons why dialects should be preserved and respected.

2.Reasons why dialects should be respected and preserved

A dialect is strongly connected to people’s personal identity and cultural identity as a mother tongue. Here, I use the term:” identity” to refer to” how people understand their relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed across time and space, and how people understand their possibilities for the future” (Norton, 1997, p.410). Also, Loss of dialect means the loss of their culture and historical identity. “When a language dies, we lose the unique local identity” (Goshgarian, 2007, p.24). Even though people speak in Japanese, each dialect has slightly different nuances. We are living in the structure which is constructed by language (Pinker, 1999). That is, the more the structure overlap, the more we understand and feel natural while they are talking.

Thus, dialects are the most important way to express a sense of belonging to a community which you are in (Morishita & Ohno, 2001). Each dialect has its own accents, pronunciations, and words which is different from the “Standard Japanese”. Sometimes, people do not even use the same word for the same thing. It is different not only from the “Standard Japanese”, but also different from region to region. For example, the word “Kowai”, which means “scary” in standard Japanese, means “stiff” or “tough” in Saitama prefecture. It also means “tired” or “hard” in some places in Tohoku district. It means “dangerous” in Kouchi prefecture and “clever” in Nigata prefecture. Like this, there are small differences on nuance in dialects. Nothing more clearly and exactly distinguishes one nuance from another than its own dialect. In other words, it is hard to translate the exact meanings of each dialect which has a lot of different nuance into the “Standard Japanese”. It is just like a Japanese word: “Setsunai” which is really difficult to translate into English. It is translated into “feel sad” (Taishukan, 2004), but actually this translation does not express the same meaning of Japanese people’s “Setsunai” feeling.

These nuances are very important to convey feeling properly. The “Standard Japanese” cannot express the small nuances as a dialect does. So, it is slightly different from real himself or herself when he or she uses the “Standard Japanese” instead of dialect. All of the uniqueness of dialects is necessary to tell each local culture and play an important role to make people’s relationship rich and deep (Sato, 1999). It ensures maintenance of the smooth relationship with others. Making use of dialects in daily life would make local areas flourish. “A dialect isn’t something to be avoided or cured” (Lederer, 2003). It should be spoken proudly and preserved.

Conclusion

Dialects are discriminated against and dying in Japan because of several reasons. The first one is the political and educational promotion of “Standard Japanese” in education. The second one is the influence of the “Standard Japanese” through media and mass communication. The third one is the influence of the economic power of Tokyo. The fourth one is the nuclear family style and individualism. The last reason is strong inferiority complex on dialects.

However, I think that each dialect should be respected and preserved. That is because each dialect is strongly connected to people’s personal identity and cultural identity. I am proud of my dialect in which I can convey my thoughts and feelings precisely and naturally. When I speak in Yonezawa dialect, I feel myself in my speech.

Reference

Goshgarian, G., (2007). Exploring Language (p.24). New York: Pearson
Education, Inc.

Langer, K. S. (1994). Language and Thought. In Goshgarian, G., (Ed.), Exploring Language (pp.34-38). New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

Pinker, S. (1999). Horton Heared a Who! In Goshgarian, G., (Ed.), Exploring Language (pp. 48-50). New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

Lederer, R. (2003). All-American Dialects. In Goshgarian, G., (Ed.), Exploring Language (pp. 541-546). New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

Esling, John. (1999). Everyone Has an Accent but Me. In Goshgarian, G., (Ed.), Exploring Language (pp. 558-562). New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

Hazen, K. (2002). Identity and Language Variation in a Rural Community.
Washington: Linguistic Society of America.

Norton, B. (1997). Language, Identity, and the Ownership of English. New
York: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL).

Morishita, K., & Ohno, M., (2001). 方言探求法. [How to explore dialects.] Japan: Asakura Book Store.

Sato, K., & Yoneda, M., (1999).どうなる日本の言葉. [What would Japanese language be like?]. Japan: Taishukan.

Takayama. (2006). 方言はなくなりつつあるのか [Are dialects disappearing?]
Retrieved July 14, 2008, from http://www3.u-toyama.ac.jp/takayama/class/2006/seminar_1/honron.htm

Gender Equality and Low Birth Rate in Japan

Tomomi Tsuchiya
Yih Yeh Pan
Course 150-3
July 8, 2008

Gender Equality and Low Birth Rate in Japan

Introduction

In Japan, low birth rate is one of several serious social issues. It is said that it will greatly influence Japan’s political and economic system in the 21st century. In 2005, the Japanese population began to decline. In 1971, Japan's total fertility rate stood at 2.16 but it has steadily declined and hit a record low of 1.32 in 2006: well below the 2.07 that is needed to maintain the population (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare (MHLW), 2006). In recent Japanese society, men and women tend to marry late and do not have children immediately after they get married. Why don’t many people have children after they get married? Multiple factors are believed to have contributed to this trend, including changes in young people’s life styles as well as the loss of traditional family structure and community functions that helped parents raise children (Kitazume, The Japan Times, 2006).

I also think that men and women’s social inequalities affect the birth rate in Japan strongly. It is said that the trend toward globalization has made women and men more equal in Japan. Moreover, thanks to the declining birth rate in Japan, the business community has to worry about a labor shortage in the near future. Thus, they have to hire, retain and promote not only talented men, but also women too (Jibu, 2007). In other words, Japanese companies have finally realized that they have no future without talented working women in their labor force. As a result, the Japanese business world has seriously committed to promoting gender diversity.
I am one of these Japanese women. I want a job that I can enjoy now and into the future. I do not want to have a child if I have to quit my job when I give birth. I do not want to marry if my husband does not help with the housework. Actually my opinion is not unique. There are many young women who think this way in Japan these days (MHLW, 2001). I guess the reason why women feel that child raising would be a burden on their careers is because Japanese society is still a male-dominated society, and there is still a deep-rooted prejudice from Japanese tradition against women with careers.

Here, I propose an effective way to solve the declining birth rate in Japan. Men should participate in housework and childcare more actively. Then they can support women’s career and lighten women’s burden. I believe doing so would help Japan’s future, which is now threatened by low birth rate. In this research paper, I would like to write about 1). The Japanese traditional way of thinking against women, 2). The present position of women in Japanese society, 3).Hints from other countries. First, let’s look at the Japanese tradition.

1.The Japanese traditional way of thinking against women.

Japan has traditionally been a male chauvinistic society. This idea is based on Confucianism. It came to Japan in the sixth century A.D. It advocates filial piety, loyalty, harmony, and predominance of men over women. It took root in the Edo era. It penetrated people’s minds as a philosophy to support the Japanese emperor from the Meiji Restoration until the loss of a battle of the pacific war (Kataoka, 1993). Women should stay at home and do housework and childrearing. This has been an inevitable thing and common sense in Japan (Equal Quality of Gender, 2003). This idea still exists in Japanese society. Married women have had more pressure from society than married men or single women in Japan (Friedman and Greenhaus, 2000). Next, let’s look at the present position of women in Japanese society.

2.The present position of women in Japanese society

There is a vicious pattern in Japanese society. In general, Japanese women do far more of the housework than their husbands do. In the household, Japanese mothers spend an average of five hours and forty minutes a day on house work and childcare whereas fathers spend only forty-six minutes (Jibu, 2007). Inequality at home influences women’s work at the office (Jibu, 2007). If men do not help with house work and childcare at home, women have to be in charge of everything at home, reducing their productivity at the office. That is, it makes it difficult for Japanese women to take leadership and managerial posts in their jobs. Actually, female managers represent only 10 percent of the Japanese business community (Jibu, 2007). Therefore senior management positions in the business field are almost all dominated by men.

Furthermore, there is an “M-shaped” women’s employment rate in Japan (Kawanobe, 2006). That is, women quit their jobs to give birth and provide childcare. The hollow portion of the M-shaped curve represents that period. In reality, most of the women who quit their job to give birth and provide childcare cannot go back to their previous jobs. Instead, they return as part-time workers or non-contracted workers (kawanobe, 2006). Even though the Child-Care Leave Law, a law which allows parents with children under the age of one to take leave for one year, was put into force in Japan in 1992 (MHLW), it is still difficult for women to take child-care leave and return to their previous jobs again after the leave. The problem is that even though the law says that both mother and father can take child-care leave, only 0.5 percent of fathers used the system whereas 72.3 percent of mothers used it (MHLW, 2004). For Japanese women who want to work as fulltime regular employees, having two children nearly means giving up their careers (Matuura and Shigeno, 2005). In fact, only 20 percent of women with children under a year old and less than 30 percent of women with children between one to two years old currently work (Japanese Bureau of Statistics, 2001). Are there any ways to end this vicious circle of work and life in Japan? I would like to see how other countries confront this issue to get a hint for solving this problem in Japan.

3.Hints from other countries

In the United States, “Women’s economic status is the highest in the world and their birth rate is the highest among developed countries” (Jibu, 2007). 71 percent of American women with children under 18 and 57 percent of women with children under three are in the labor force (Jibu, 2007). It is very different from Japan. In the U.S., men’s participation at home has increased since 1981 mainly because they have done more childcare than in the past (Pleck, 1993). In 2000, American men spent seven hours per week on childcare (Jibu, 2007).

In Norway, men also have right to use the childcare leave system, and 9 men out of 10 use this right (Grutle, 2005). Thus it is natural in Norway for men to participate in housework and childcare. Norway is one of the top countries, which the rate of women’s employment is very high. From 25 to 66 years of age, men’s employment rate is 82 percent. On the other hand, women’s rate is 75 percent. 72 percent of women with children under three years old are in the labor force. Furthermore, 82 percent of women who have children three to six years old are working in Norway (Norway Embassy, 2007). The notable thing is that total fertility rate in Norway is 1.80 which is much higher than Japan’s total fertility rate (Brende, 2003).

Conclusion

According to my research, it is obvious that men’s participation in housework and childcare support is needed for women to succeed in the workplace and at home a lot. Even though women are married and have children in America and Norway, they do not have to give up their careers. That is because men and women are more equal in those countries compared with present Japan. Although Japanese demographic history and tradition are different from America’s and Norway’s, I can say that Japanese men can change attitudes which are based on Japanese traditional way of thinking. If men and women equally could share what they should do at home, I think the Japanese birth rate would increase. I hope this change will happen to Japan in the near future. It will brighten the future of Japan.

References

The Japan Institute of Labor Policy and Training (JIL), (2007). Prudential committee advanced the reinforcement of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law. Retrieved July 4, 2008, from
http://www.jil.go.jp/kaigaitopic/2000_01/suedenP02.htm

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Early Childhood English Education in Japan

Tomomi Tsuchiya
Yih Yeh Pan
Course 150-3
June 3, 2008

Early Childhood English Education in Japan

Introduction

English is a very important language not only in Japan but also in the world these days. According to a statistics survey which was done by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in 2006, there are 54 countries in which English is used as an official language or a second official language out of 192 countries in the world. Nearly 21billion people are using English. That is, about one-third of the countries and populations on the Earth use English. According to Benesse Education Study Development Center in 2008, Korea, which is a neighbor of Japan, already introduced the Early Childhood English Education system (ECEE) in 1997. With the tide of internationalization, MEXT mentioned that English should be one of the compulsory subjects in elementary schools in Japan by the spring of 2009. However, it is controversial to introduce English to fifth and sixth grade elementary school students once a week. According to a survey which was carried out by Kyodo News in 2006, nearly 80 percent of respondents think English-language education should start at an early age. They think that Japanese children would be able to use English effectively in the future if they start to learn English from elementary school. However, some people do not agree with this system. They do not think it would be effective for children to acquire English ability which is practical even if they started to learn English from elementary school. In addition, there are problems such as the quality of the teachers and how to teach.

From my point of view, I can not agree with the ECEE system in Japan at this point because of the following two reasons: 1) Critical Period for acquiring first language: a specific and limited time period for first language acquisition. However, it isn't applicable to second language acquisition. 2) Lack of suitably qualified teachers: there is presently a lack of suitably qualified educators among Japanese teachers and ALTs (Assistant Language Teachers).

1.Critical Period for acquiring first language

“There is a specific and limited time period for language acquisition” (Lightbown and Spada, 2003, p.19). This is called the critical period hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967), this requirement is not necessarily absolute, so the term “sensitive period” sometimes substitutes for “critical period” (Lieberman, 1993). “It is just like an imprinting which happens to chicks and ducklings” (Hoff, 2005, p.59). The period starts from about five years old to around ten years old. There are some opinions that small children have to start to learn English because of this “critical period”. People who insist on this kind of opinion believe that students who are older than ten years old would not be able to acquire the second language completely (Tousu, 2002). Actually, in the realm of first language acquisition study, this hypothesis was proved by some cases in which children that got behind in their first language acquisition because of some reasons such as childhood aphasia, an acquired communication disorder caused by an injury to the brain that affect a person’s ability to communicate (Aphasia Institute, 2008), had various problems with their first language acquisition (Johnson and Johnson, 1999). Lenneberg said that he found big differences when he analyzed and divided the symptoms of childhood aphasia by children’s ages. As the child’s age advanced, the speed of recovery decreased. Then, it would be difficult for over twelve or thirteen years old to recover from childhood aphasia completely. (Fujinaga, T, 2003).

However, in the field of second language acquisition, no study shows evidence that people have a critical period when they learn a second language (Johnson and Johnson, 1999; Singleton and Alengyel 1995; Birdsong 1999). To put it the other way around, it doesn’t matter whether Japanese people started to learn English from elementary school or junior high school. There is no evidence to support the idea: “it is too late to start to learn English from junior high school.” It is not too late to learn the second language from junior high school. Moreover, the second language is not necessarily acquired, so the ability would differ from each person (Skehan, 1989). Even though it seems that little children understand each other when they are talking, they do not really understand the language itself (Fujinaga, 2001). “While it is believed that children need to learn a second language before their critical period in order to acquire a natural pronunciation in informal daily learning, it is also true that some children fail to acquire a native-like proficiency under the influence of their first language. Adult learners, on the other hand, can succeed in acquiring a native-like pronunciation with their efforts and artificial instructions (Nagai, 1997). Therefore, People would be able to master the second language even if they started to learn it after elementary school.

2.Lack of suitably qualified teachers

MEXT says that elementary school teachers and ALT should try to team-teach when they teach English to children. There are two big problems with this. One problem is Japanese teachers’ English ability. The other one is ALT’s teaching skill.

According to Yomiuri news paper research in the Saitama Area in 2007, most of the elementary school teachers are concerned about teaching English. According to a survey which was conducted by MEXT in 2005, 70 percent of parents approve the ECEE system, while more than half of the elementary school teachers disapprove of it. Thus, many elementary school teachers do not have the confidence and skill to teach English. Because they took the education which focuses too much on English grammar and reading but not on pronunciation, speaking or listening, they think that they cannot teach children speaking and listening. This would cause more problems such as difficulty of communication with ALT teachers. In 2007, the MEXT started to train only the teachers who would lead the ECEE. They trained for five days. Compared to Korea which implements 120-hours training for all of the elementary school teachers, Japanese training system is not yet comprehensive enough (Benesse, 2007). Without well-trained teachers, the new education challenge would not be successful.

ALT is also a key of ECEE in Japan because they will teach English to children with Japanese teachers. As I mentioned above, Japanese teachers still have a lot of problems teaching English in elementary school. However, is it a good idea to leave the English education up to ALT? It is also doubtful that leaving English class to ALT only would be effective and really helpful to make children’s English improved. According to the application guidebook of ALT in Matsumoto city in Osaka, the applicants have to fulfill only these three conditions: a). Must be born not earlier than April 2, 1948, b). Native speaker, has excellent pronunciation, rhythm, intonation and voice projection skills in the designated language, c). Be qualified as an English teacher or be strongly motivated in teaching the English language. As the last condition mentioned, ALT does not have to be a person who has a qualification of English teacher. They do not have to be able to speak Japanese either. Despite not having to speak Japanese, they have to do team-teaching with Japanese teachers. It might cause problems such as misunderstanding each other or lack of communication with the Japanese teachers. In addition, this situation might also cause a gap of education quality between an area which has an ALT whose teaching skill is high and another area which does not have a qualified teacher.

Recommendations

Since there are still some remaining problems such as teachers’ skill, the Japanese government should reconsider the English Education in Japan. Comparing the Japanese people’s TOEFL scores with other countries in the world, Japanese people’s scores are much worse than others at this point (MEXT, 2005). “Japan needs to revamp its entire system of English –language teaching” (Clark, The Japan Times, 2006). Because “Japanese have historically learned foreign languages for the purpose of absorbing advanced knowledge from abroad rather than for communicating with foreigners” (Tanikawa, The New York Times, 1996), Japanese English education programs in junior high schools and high schools focus too much on grammar and reading. In Japanese schools, teachers tend to focus on meticulous points of grammar (Tanikawa, 1996). Even if English words or grammar were taught to children, they would not really understand English. They would focus on structure or form of English rather than its function or meaning. English is not like math and science which are carefully analyzed, but it is a language which is a tool of communication. This English education style is not an effective way to improve Japanese people’s English ability. “…Simply changing the quantitative framework won’t bring about the desired results. In addition, what is important is how to change the content of the framework. In other words, we need to focus more on quality, rather than quantity, of knowledge taught” (Sasaki, Asahi News, 2008). Therefore, the ECEE system would not be effective as long as the present English education system in junior high schools and high schools continues.

Conclusion

It is not necessary to introduce English in the Japanese elementary school at this point. If the English education system in junior high school and high school were improved, people would be able to acquire English better than now. English would be useful for introducing other cultures to Japanese Children. However, there are still problems about teaching English in elementary schools. In addition, I don't think there is a pressing need for elementary English education due to the possibility that the idea of a critical period for second language acquisition may be a non-issue. Therefore, I believe that the ECEE should not have to be a compulsory subject in elementary schools in Japan. I think that the MEXT should concentrate on improving the English education system of junior high schools and high schools rather than introducing the ECEE system.

References

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Ironical Essay

The Better Cinderella Story

Many of the fairy tales share some elements. They open with “Once upon a time” and there is always “Good and evil” in the stories. There are beautiful princesses and princes. Magic is often used in the stories. Then they end with “and they lived happily ever after.” When I was a little, whenever I came in contact with the world of fairy tales, I believed that someday a prince would come to propose marriage to me and I would be able to live happily forever, though this sounds totally unrealistic. I don’t think they are the bedside stories to give dreams to little innocent children because fairy tales cover up many aspects of reality. I propose a better “fairy tale” based on Cinderella, which would be helpful for children to know reality and to plan for their future.

There was a widower who married a selfish and haughty woman for his second wife. She had two daughters, who were haughty like their mother. One of the daughters was roly-poly and ugly. However, she was really smart. She graduated the graduate school of Harvard University and got a PhD there. By his first wife, the widower had a very beautiful young daughter of remarkable goodness and sweet temper. She could dance better than anybody else in the kingdom. The Stepmother employed the young beautiful daughter in all the housework. When the girl had done her work, she sat in the cinders, which caused her to be called "Cinderella". The poor girl put up with it patiently, but did not tell her father because he would have scolded her. Her father couldn’t disobey his wife at all.

One day, the King invited all the maidens in the land to a dance party to choose a girl who would be good for his son to get married. Since those two Stepsisters were invited, they gleefully choose their party dresses. Cinderella assisted their changing, but they still mocked her and said that a maid could never attend any parties. After her stepmother and sisters left the house, a girl who was in brilliant dress visited her to go to the ball with her. She was Cinderella’s childhood friend, and she was the only person who really understood Cinderella. The best friend was not so beautiful but very rich because her father was the president of the biggest company in the country. She lent Cinderella her elaborate dress and a delicate pair of glass shoes. She rode in a shiny black Mercedes-Benz and there were many attendants and security guards around it. Cinderella and her best friend went to the ball together.

At the ball, the entire court was entranced by Cinderella’s best friend, especially the shiny black Mercedes-Benz, which attracted even the King. Those days in the kingdom, bureaucrats’ scandals and failed economic policies were very big problems. The kingdom was under financial strain. To find a lady who was very rich, the king held the ball even though his son couldn’t dance well. So, the king added Cinderella’s best friend’s name on the top of his list.
Moreover, the prince was not smart, so the King worried about the future of the kingdom. He also wanted to find a lady who was much smarter than the prince and who knew all there is to know about politics. Cinderella’s smart stepsister talked with the King about the financial situation of the kingdom. She gave some ways out to the king. Her plan seemed to be really useful. He was moved by her intelligence even though he thought that she was very ugly at first. So he also added her name to the list.

However, the prince's heart was taken by Cinderella because she was young and beautiful. Once he saw her excellent dance, he fell in love her. The king also thought that Cinderella was much more beautiful than any other ladies at the party. However, once he knew that she was poor and had never been to school, he gave the prince an order not to propose marriage to her. He said “You would get used to an ugly face within three days, but you would get bored of a beautiful face within three days.”

After that, the prince and Cinderella’s rich best friend got married. Her father made a lot of investments in the kingdom. Moreover, Cinderella’s smart stepsister became the Minister of Finance. Because she was very ugly and mean, many co-workers didn’t like her personally. However, her economic policy was very effective. So, everyone knew that her ability was necessary for the kingdom. Thanks to them, the kingdom was reconstructed and it flourished. So, people in the kingdom were able to lead better life. As for Cinderella, she became a retained dancer in the kingdom. So, the prince was satisfied because he was able to watch her dance whenever he wanted. Cinderella was also happy because she didn’t have to be teased by her stepmother and stepsisters anymore. Also, she was relieved that she didn’t have to marry the prince because the prince was not her type anyway. Thus, all the people in the story became happy.

In reality, love can’t bring happiness to everyone. People would consult their own interests. So, compromise and concessions would be necessary. The Cinderella Story that I proposed is very helpful for children because they can know what the reality is like and prepare for their future.